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Dietary Fats Replacers and Diseases
Dietary fat is a nutrient needed for an overall healthful lifestyle. Like
carbohydrates and protein, dietary fat is an important source of energy for the
body. Fat is the most concentrated source of energy in the diet, providing nine
calories per gram compared with four calories per gram from either carbohydrates
or protein.
Dietary fat supplies essential fatty acids, linoleic and linolenic acids,
which are especially important to children for proper growth. In addition, fat
is required for maintenance of healthy skin, for regulation of cholesterol
metabolism, and as a precursor of prostaglandins, hormone-like substances that
regulate many body functions. It is also needed to carry and aid in the
absorption of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K and carotenoids. In some
cases, dietary fat supplies the vitamin too-for example, the major source of
vitamin E in the diet is soybean oil.
The largest amount of fat is stored in the body's adipose (fat) cells but,
some fat is found in blood plasma and other body cells. These fat deposits not
only store energy, but also are important in insulating the body and supporting
and cushioning organs.
Physical and Functional Properties of Dietary Fats and Cholesterol
Fats are composed of the same three elements as carbohydrates namely carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen. However, fats have relatively more carbon and hydrogen and
less oxygen, thus accounting for the higher energy value of nine calories per
gram.
Technically, fats should be referred to in the plural, as there is no one
type of fat. Fats are actually combinations of many different fatty acids which
exert characteristic physiological and metabolic effects in the body. Saturated
and unsaturated fats are designated by the presence of double bonds within the
chain of carbon atoms in the fatty acid. Saturated fats have no double bonds,
whereas unsaturated fats have double bonds. Unsaturated fats with one double
bond are called monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and those with more than one
double bond are called polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (See Chart). In
general, fats containing a majority of saturated fatty acids are solid at room
temperature, although some solid vegetable shortenings are up to 75 percent
unsaturated. Fats containing mostly unsaturated fatty acids are usually liquid
at room temperature and are called oils. Saturated fatty acids are more stable
than unsaturated fatty acids because of their chemical structure. Stability is
especially important in cooking oil and food products containing oils/fats as
ingredients to maintain flavor, cooking performance, and to prevent rancidity.
Polyunsaturated fats are further distinguished by the position of the double
bonds in their structure. Designated by "omega" (e.g., omega-3, omega-6), this
term indicates the position of the beginning of the first double bond starting
from the methyl end of the fatty acid. Two examples of omega-3 fatty acids
include eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Oily fish
from cold waters, such as salmon, mackerel, tuna, and trout are especially rich
in EPA and DHA. (For a list of common saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, see
Chart).
Systematic Name |
Common Name |
Typical Fat Source |
Common Saturated Fatty Acids |
Hexanoic Acid |
Caproic Acid |
Butterfat |
Octanoic Acid |
Caprylic Acid |
Coconut Oil |
Decanoic Acid |
Capric Acid |
Coconut Oil |
Dodecanoic Acid |
Lauric Acid |
Coconut Oil |
Tetradecanoic Acid |
Myristic Acid |
Butterfat, Coconut Oils |
Hexadecanoic Acid |
Palmitic Acid |
Palm, Cottonseed Oils |
Octadecanoic Acid |
Stearic Acid |
Cocoa Butter, Animal Fat |
Eicsanoic Acid |
Arachidic Acid |
Peanut Oil |
Common Unsaturated Fatty Acids |
Hexadecenoic Acid |
Palmitoleic Acid |
Some Fish Oils, Beef Fat |
9-Octadecenoic Acid |
Oleic Acid |
Olive, Canola Oils |
9, 12 Octadecadienoic Acid |
*Linoleic Acid |
Soybean, Corn Oils |
9,12,15 Octadecatrienoic Acid |
*Alpha-Linolenic Acid |
Soybean, Canola Oils |
5, 8,11,14 Eicosatetraenoic Acid |
Arachidonic Acid |
Lard |
5, 8, 11, 14, 17 Eicosapentaenoic Acid |
EPA |
Some Fish Oils |
Docosohexaenoic Acid |
DHA |
Some Fish Oils |
*Essential Fatty Acids
Saturated Fat
The 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend that healthy
people consume less than 10 percent of calories from saturated fats daily.
Meats, baked goods, and full-fat dairy products are the main sources of
saturated fats in most diets. Coconut, palm, and palm kernel oils also contain
saturated fats.
Unsaturated Fat
Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids are unsaturated fats. When
they replace saturated fats in the diet, they help reduce blood cholesterol
levels and thus lower the risk of heart disease. The 2005 Dietary Guidelines
for Americans recommend keeping total fat intake between 20 and 35 percent
of calories with most fats coming from sources of polyunsaturated and
monounsaturated fatty acids such as fish, nuts, and vegetable oils.
Canola, olive, peanut, high oleic safflower and sunflower oils, and nuts are
rich in monounsaturated fats. Sources of alpha-linolenic and linoleic acids,
which are unsaturated fats and essential, include vegetable oils, walnuts, and
flaxseed.
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a fat-like substance that is necessary in many physiological
processes such as, a component of cell membranes, the production of bile acids
(which aid in food digestion), and in the production of sex hormones. An excess
of cholesterol in the blood, however, can lead to deposits in the walls of blood
vessels and reduce blood flow to major arteries, which can lead to a heart
attack.
Contrary to popular belief, most cholesterol found in the blood is
manufactured by the body itself, not derived through foods consumed in the diet.
Dietary cholesterol is found only in animal foods such as egg yolks, butter,
organ meats, beef, chicken, and shellfish. Vegetable oils and shortenings are
cholesterol-free.
Trans Fatty Acids
Hydrogenation, developed in the early 1900s, is the process of adding
hydrogen molecules directly to unsaturated fatty acids such as those found in
vegetable oil. Hydrogenated oils contribute important textural and stability
properties in food. The firmness and spreadability of margarines, flakiness of
piecrust, creaminess of puddings, and crispiness of French fries are
characteristics provided by hydrogenated oil ingredients.
During partial hydrogenation, some hydrogen atoms move from being on the same
side of a double bond (cis) to being on the opposite side of a double
bond forming a new configuration of fatty acids referred to as "trans,"
meaning "opposite." The trans fat content of partially hydrogenated oils
may vary widely depending on the level of hydrogenation employed and the amount
used in that particular product. For example, the amount of trans fat in
a product containing lightly hydrogenated vegetable oil listed low in the
ingredient list can be nutritionally insignificant. When an oil appears in the
ingredient list as "hydrogenated," this means that it has been fully
hydrogenated, or completely saturated with hydrogen atoms, therefore resulting
as a saturated fatty acid which contains no trans fats.
Trans fatty acids are found naturally occurring in beef, lamb, and
dairy products. However, the main sources of trans fats in the U.S. diet are
partially hydrogenated oils which are found in foods such as cookies, crackers,
pastries and fried foods. The National Academy of Sciences' Institute of
Medicine recently concluded that trans fatty acids are similar to
saturated fats and dietary cholesterol with regard to their effect on blood
low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. In addition, some studies suggest
that increased intake of trans fats may lower high-density lipoprotein
(HDL) cholesterol. The mean trans fatty acid intake in the U.S. is 2.6
percent of calories compared with 12 percent of calories from saturated fat.
Dietary Fats and Disease
Coronary Heart Disease
The main concern about excess saturated and trans fats in the diet
centers on their potential role in raising blood cholesterol, a risk factor in
the development of coronary heart disease (CHD). However, one saturated fatty
acid that has gotten a lot of attention is stearic acid, found primarily in
cocoa butter and animal fat, which is found to have a neutral effect on blood
cholesterol. Further research is being conducted to determine the effect, if
any, of stearic acid on other cardiovascular disease risk factors.
Physicians and other health professionals measure the level of blood
cholesterol to help determine an individual's risk for CHD. According to the
National Institutes of Health, less than 200 mg/dl is considered a desirable
blood cholesterol level; more than 240 mg/dl is considered high total
cholesterol. Scientists also have identified individual classes of blood
cholesterol. Referred to as the "bad cholesterol," LDL fractions contain most of
the cholesterol in the blood and are associated with cholesterol deposits on
artery walls, more commonly known as plaque. Referred to as the "good
cholesterol," HDL fractions are believed to carry cholesterol out of the blood
and back to the liver for breakdown and excretion. Thus, having high HDL levels
of cholesterol; greater than 40 mg/dL, may be as important as having low LDL
levels; less than 100 mg/dL, to reduce the risk of heart disease.
In addition to diet, a wide variety of risk factors influence blood
cholesterol. Risk factors beyond control include age, race, and gender. But
there are many risk factors that individuals can influence. These include
following a healthful diet, maintaining healthy weight, getting adequate
physical activity, controlling high blood pressure, avoiding cigarette smoking,
and managing stress. For some people, heredity may be an even stronger predictor
of blood cholesterol than diet.
Obesity
An individual's body weight is determined by a combination of genetic,
metabolic, behavioral, environmental, cultural, and socioeconomic influences.
Investigations into the cause of obesity reveal that energy intake, irrespective
of macronutrient source, plays a key role in body weight. For example, as the
percent of calories from fats has declined in the U.S. diet, there is no
evidence that body weight is also declining. However, research has shown that a
considerable decrease in the number of calories from fat will result in a small
loss of body weight for normal weight and moderately obese individuals.
Cancer
In 2005, the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee concluded that the
"evidence between total fat intake and certain cancers is suggestive but not
conclusive." Data suggest that diets low in folate and calcium and high in total
fat, calories, meat, and alcohol are associated with an increased risk of
developing colorectal cancer and that dietary fat from animal sources may be
linked to a higher risk of prostate cancer. Current research shows that dietary
fat intake in general does not seem to be associated with risk of breast cancer.
One of the questions that remains is whether associations noted between
dietary fats and risk for developing cancer are correlated with the amount of
fat, attributable to the type of fatty acid, or related to some other factor in
food. Exploring the relationship between cancer and specific types of fats is an
important area of current research.
Moderating Dietary Fat
The 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend a total fat intake
between 20 and 35 percent of calories for adults to meet daily energy and
nutritional needs while minimizing risk of chronic disease. In 2002, The
Institute of Medicine (IOM) recommended that the intake of saturated fats be
less than 10 percent of calories, cholesterol be less than 300 mg/day, and trans
fatty acid consumption be as low as possible. Consumption of certain fatty acids
are encouraged because of their positive health effects, which are explored
in-depth in the
Functional Foods section of IFIC.org. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's
MyPyramid food guidance system recommends oils from foods such as
vegetable oils, nuts, and some fish because of their healthful attributes.
According to the Continuing Survey of Food Intakes of Individuals, the median
intake of total fat in the U.S. ranges from about 32 to 34 percent of total
calories. The main contributors include butter, margarine, vegetable oils, egg
yolks, nuts, baked goods, and visible fat on meat and poultry. Saturated fats
provide approximately 11 to 12 percent of calories in adult diets, according to
the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) conducted between
1999 and 2000.
Types of Fat Reduction Ingredients
To help Americans moderate their dietary fat intake, advances in food science
have allowed for the development of a wide variety of reduced-fat meat, dairy,
and packaged food products. Fat replacers are developed to duplicate the taste
and texture of fats and generally fall into three categories: carbohydrate-,
protein-, or fat-based. To begin, many lower fat products in the marketplace
resulted from new processing techniques using commonplace ingredients such as
water, gums, and sugars. Other fat replacers are made from proteins or fats.
Each type of fat replacer ingredient provides some or all of the taste and
functions of fats such as moistness in baked goods. The ingredients that are
used to replace fats depend on how the food product will be eaten or prepared.
For example, not all fat replacer ingredients are heat stable. As such, the type
of fat replacer used in a fat-free salad dressing may not work well for a muffin
mix.
Fats of the Future: Alternatives to Trans Fat in the Food Supply
The results of fatty acid research, both in terms of health and
functionality, are likely to have practical applications for food scientists.
Scientists continue to look for ways to provide trans fatty acid-or "trans
fat" - alternatives to help consumers meet recommendations of the Dietary
Guidelines for Americans. Trans fat alternatives must provide the
same functional characteristics such as texture, crispness, appearance, and
stability of the product being replaced, while also remaining cost effective and
abundant for use. The challenge is in bringing to consumers acceptable
alternatives with these functional attributes that are lower in or free of
trans fats, as well as lower in saturated fats. To help consumers control
blood cholesterol profiles, margarines have been placed on the market with no
trans fatty acids, and certain margarines also contain beneficial plant
sterols. For more information about plant sterols, see the
Functional Foods section of IFIC.org.
The evolving research behind dietary fats offers a great opportunity for
nutrition scientists and food scientists to work in concert to deliver nutrition
recommendations that promote health, and food products that deliver on those
recommendations.
Fats on the Food Label
Historically both total fat and saturated fat are listed on the Nutrition
Facts panel (NFP) on the food label. As of January 1, 2006, the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) will require trans fat to be listed below the
saturated fat line in the NFP. Many food manufactures are taking advantage of
this change in the NFP to voluntarily provide information about polyunsaturated
fats (PUFA) and monounsaturated fats (MUFA) contained in the product. Consumers
can use this information, along with both health claims that meet significant
scientific agreement (SSA) and those that are "qualified," on food packaging to
make more informed choices about products before purchase.
Health claims are an example of a label education tool regulated by the Food
and Drug Administration (FDA). They appear on food packages to aid the consumer
with additional nutrition information about health effects of that specific
food. These claims display the strength of scientific evidence representing the
relationship between a food component and a disease or health-related condition.
Health claims have historically focused on foods low in fat, saturated fats, and
cholesterol. Health claim declarations include references to some cancers and
coronary heart disease risk.
"Qualified" health claims, which characterize the level of scientific
evidence linking a specific food component or food to a disease or
health-related condition, are more common as additional science becomes
available on individual fatty acids and their impact on health. These claims
display the strength of scientific evidence representing the relationship of
that specific food with a disease or health related condition. The FDA, after
evaluation of research on two fatty acids, released two qualified health claims
for EPA/DHA and olive oil to acknowledge their possible beneficial effects of
reducing the risk of coronary heart disease. Currently, other fatty acids like
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), alpha-linolenic acid,
linoleic acid, stearic acid, and a multitude of other fatty acids are beginning
to be studied further to determine their impact on health.
Balancing Calories
Ultimately, weight management is dependent on balancing the number of
calories consumed with the number of calories expended. The specific question
for researchers is whether consumers compensate-or even over-compensate-for
calories or fats when consuming nutrient-modified foods. Currently, research has
moved into focusing on how our body recognizes signals of fullness. It is
unclear whether the energy-density or the proportion of nutrients such as fat,
protein, carbohydrates, fiber, and water that are present in a given meal sends
the signal of fullness to the body.
Generally the research finds that individuals who are good at regulating
their calorie intake over time will continue to do so when consuming reduced-fat
foods. This results in the same number of total calories with a smaller
percentage coming from fats. In contrast, those individuals who are concerned
with their body weight may be more likely to reduce caloric intake using
fat-modified foods, but may still over consume calories. Health professionals
can play a key role in helping consumers understand how to achieve dietary
recommendations for fat intake within a well-balanced diet that features the
recommended amounts of a variety of foods.
Consumer Knowledge: Yesterday and Today
Extensive IFIC consumer research has shown a knowledge-behavior disconnect in
what consumers "know" about diet and nutrition, and what they "do." Over time,
consumers continue to become more knowledgeable about dietary fats and fatty
acids, but changes in behavior do not appear to be undertaken. This disconnect
may be a result of consumers feeling bombarded with information from a variety
of sources such as the Internet, food labels, friends, family, television,
government, and a host of others. Many consumers find it difficult to separate
valid advice from fad diet recommendations.
This research also showed that consumers have a general sense that fat is
needed by the body to function properly, but that too much can pose serious
health risks. In addition, it showed that consumers think about fat in a
polarized manner. For example, they feel that fats make food taste good, but
believe it should be restricted or eliminated completely from the diet.
Consumers associate dietary fats more with foods that contain them, rather than
the specific fatty acid. Whether fats promote health benefits is still unclear
to many consumers, but they are open to messages on how fats promote health in
the context of a balanced lifestyle.
Finally, consumer research revealed that consumers do not know how to balance
a healthful lifestyle and the foods they most enjoy. Most feel that in order to
have more healthful eating habits they need to restrict their favorite foods.
Additional IFIC research found that consumers want very personalized dietary
information that is specific to their lifestyle. Therefore, it is important for
consumers to receive dietary messages that are personalized and realistic in
order for them to incorporate a balance of dietary fats into a diet plan that is
meant for health or weight loss.
Historically, consumers have expressed a desire for foods lower in calories
and fat. But moderation in total fat and making informed choices in dietary fat
consumption such as trimming visible fat from meats, removing skin from poultry,
and choosing fat-free or low-fat milk, is only one aspect of good nutrition.
Balance, variety, and moderate intake of all foods are prudent approaches for
the general population. Moreover, a well-balanced diet in combination with
plenty of exercise, maintaining proper weight, and controlling conditions such
as hypertension or diabetes are the best approaches to living a more healthful
lifestyle.
For more information about IFIC consumer research, see:
IFIC Research.
Source: Originally printed in the 2007-2009 IFIC Foundation Media Guide on Food
Safety and Nutrition.
Adapted by Editorial Staff, December 2007
Last update, August 2008
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